Inflammation is a complex biological response to harmful stimuli, such as pathogens, damaged cells, or irritants. The inflammatory response is an attempt by the body to restore and maintain homeostasis after invasion by an infectious agent, antigen challenge, or physical, chemical or traumatic damage. Localized inflammation is contained in a specific region and can exhibit varying symptoms, including redness, swelling, heat and pain. While the inflammatory response is generally considered a healthy response to injury, the immune system can present an undesirable physiological response if it is not appropriately regulated. In this situation, the body's normally protective immune system causes damage to its own tissue by treating healthy tissue as if it is infected or abnormal. Alternatively, if there is an injury, the inflammatory response may be out of proportion with the threat causing the injury. When this occurs, the inflammatory response can cause more damage to the body than the agent itself would have produced.
The inflammatory response has been found in part to consist of an increased expression of both pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines. Cytokines are low molecular weight, biologically active proteins involved in the coordination of immunological and inflammatory responses and communication between specific immune cell populations. A number of cell types produce cytokines during inflammatory reactions, including neutrophils, monocytes, and lymphocytes. Multiple mechanisms exist by which cytokines generated at inflammatory sites influence the inflammatory response. If a proinflammatory response is not successfully countered by anti-inflammatory cytokines, however, uncontrolled systemic inflammation can occur. In contrast to localized inflammation, systemic inflammation is widespread throughout the body. This type of inflammation may include localized inflammation at specific sites, but may also be associated with general “flu-like” symptoms, including fever, chills, fatigue or loss of energy, headaches, loss of appetite, and muscle stiffness. Systemic inflammation can lead to protein degradation, catabolism and hypermetabolism. As a consequence, the structure and function of essential organs, such as muscle, heart, immune system and liver may be compromised and can contribute to multi-organ failure and mortality.
Although enormous progress has been achieved in understanding the mechanisms of systemic inflammation, the mortality rate due to this disorder remains unacceptably high.
There is therefore still a need to develop compositions having improved physiological and/or pharmacological and/or therapeutic activities for the prevention and/or treatment of inflammation. It is accordingly one of the objects of the present invention to overcome or ameliorate at least one of the disadvantages of the prior art, or to provide a useful alternative.